Hi Everyone:

Here is a Commentary on Bountiful Trees and Vegetables God (YHWH) has provided for mankind, specifically the Psidium. friedrichsthalianum Ndz., known variously in Latin America as cas or cas ácida (Costa Rica), guayaba ácida (Guatemala), guayaba agria (Colombia), guayaba de danto (Honduras), guayaba de agua (Panama), guayaba del Choco (Ecuador), guayaba montes (Mexico), guayaba (Nicaragua), and arrayan (El Salvador). 

Description 
An attractive, shapely tree, 20 to 35 ft (6-10 m) high, it has wiry, quadrangular, or 4-winged, branchlets which are dark reddish and minutely hairy. The trunk bark is red-brown with grayish patches. The evergreen leaves are 2 to 4 3/4 in (5-12 cm) long, 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm) wide, elliptic or oval, pointed, gland-dotted, thin; dark and smooth above, pale beneath. Flowers, usually borne singly, are fragrant, white, 1 in (2.5 cm) wide, with 5 waxy petals and about 300 stamens up to 1/2 in (1.25 cm) long. The fruit is round or oval, 1 1/4 to 2 1/2 in (3-6 cm) long, with yellow skin and soft, white, very acid flesh, and a few flattened seeds 3/16 in (5 mm) long. There is no musky odor. 

Distribution 
This tree grows naturally in Colombia (especially in the Cauca and Magdalena valleys), throughout Central America and around Oaxaca in southern Mexico, usually bordering streams and in swampy woods along the coast and inland. It is commonly cultivated in home gardens in temperate highlands of Costa Rica, occasionally in El Salvador, Guatemala and northern Ecuador. It thrives in the Philippines at medium and low elevations. Introductions into California and Florida have not been very successful, the tree bearing poorly and eventually succumbing to cold spells. 

Food Uses 
Because of its acidity, the fruit is mostly used for ade, jelly and jam. It makes fine filling for pies. Early Spaniards complained that eating the raw fruits "set the teeth on edge". 

Food Value 
Analyses in Guatemala show: moisture, 83.15%; protein, 0.78-0.88%; carbohydrates, 5.75-6.75%; fat, 0.39-0.52%; fiber, 7.90%; ash, 0.80%. The fruit is rich in pectin even when fully ripe. [source - retrieved from http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/costa_rican_guava.html on 1/02/2013] 

In Genesis 1:11-13, "And God said, Let the earth put forth grass, herbs yielding seed, and fruit-trees bearing fruit after their kind, wherein is the seed thereof, upon the earth: and it was so. 12 And the earth brought forth grass, herbs yielding seed after their kind, and trees bearing fruit, wherein is the seed thereof, after their kind: and God saw that it was good. 13 And there was evening and there was morning, a third day. (American Standard Version, ASV)[for more details, go to www.jw.org].

This moderate-growing, small tree from Central America grows well in protected areas but doesn't bear well. It bears large, white fragrant flowers and large round or oval, green-to-yellow fruit with a number of seeds and white, slightly acid but tasty flesh. It is eaten fresh, in ades or jellies. Propagated by seed or air layer. [source - retrieved from http://www.dianangelov.com/EFA/trees/cas_guavas.html on 1/02/2013] 

How this tree and other plants absorb water from the ground. Plants have developed an effective system to absorb, translocate, store, and utilize water. Plants contain a vast network of conduits, which consists of xylem and phloem tissues. These conducting tissues start in the roots and continue up through the trunks of trees, into the branches and then into every leaf. Phloem tissue is made of living elongated cells that are connected to one another and responsible for translocating nutrients and sugars (carbohydrates), which are produced by leaves for energy and growth. The xylem is also composed of elongated cells but once the cells are formed, they die. The walls of the xylem cells still remain intact and serve as an excellent peipline to transport water from the roots to the leaves.

The main driving force of water uptake and transport into a plant is transpiration of water from leaves through specialized openings called stomata. Heat from the sun causes the water to evaporate, setting this ‘water chain’ in motion. The evaporation creates a negative water vapor pressure. Water is pulled into the leaf to replace the water that has transpired from the leaf. This pulling of water, or tension, occurs in the xylem of the leaf. Since the xylem is a continuous water column that extends from the leaf to the roots, this negative water pressure extends into the roots and results in water uptake from the soil. [adapted from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=follow-up-how-do-trees-ca ]

Clearly this clever water transport system shows a superior intelligence of the Creator (YHWH).


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2) http://www.network54.com/Forum/403209/ 

3) http://religioustruths.lefora.com/

4) http://religioustruths.boardhost.com/

5) http://religious-truths.forums.com/

6) http://religioustruthsbyiris.createmybb3.com/ 

7) http://religioustruths.forumotion.com/


Your Friend in Christ Iris89 

Francis David said it long ago, "Neither the sword of popes...nor the image of death will halt the march of truth."Francis David, 1579, written on the wall of his prison cell." Read the book, "What Does The Bible Really Teach" and the Bible today, and go to www.jw.org!

 
Hi Everyone:
 
Here is a Commentary on Bountiful Trees and Vegetables God (YHWH) has provided for mankind, specifically the cashew (k?sh`, k?sh`), tropical American tree (Anacardium occidentale) of the family Anacardiaceae (sumac sumach, common name for some members of the Anacardiaceae, a family of trees and shrubs native chiefly to the tropics but ranging into north temperate regions and characterized by resinous and often acrid, sap. family), valued chiefly for the cashew nut of commerce. The tree's acrid sap is used in making a varnish that protects woodwork and books from insects. The fruit is kidney-shaped, about an inch in length, and has a double shell. The kernel, which is sweet, oily, and nutritious, is much used for food in the tropics after being roasted to destroy the caustic juice. It yields a light-colored oil said to be the equal of olive oil and is utilized in various culinary ways. In the West Indies it is used to flavor wine, particularly Madeira, and is imported into Great Britain for this purpose. The nut grows on the end of a fleshy, pear-shaped stalk, called the cashew apple, which is white, yellow, or red, juicy and slightly acid, and is eaten or fermented to make wine. Cashews are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Sapindales, family Anacardiaceae.  [adopted from http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/cashew on 1/03/213].
 
cashew
 
Cashew apples (hypocarp) and nuts of the domesticated cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale).
(credit: W.H. Hodge)
Edible seed or nut of Anacardium occidentale, a tropical and subtropical evergreen shrub or tree in the sumac family, native to tropical Central and South America. Important chiefly for its nuts, the tree also produces wood used for shipping crates, boats, and charcoal, and a gum similar to gum arabic. Related to poison ivy and poison sumac, it must be handled with care. The two-shelled nut is shaped like a large, thick bean. A brown oil between the two shells blisters human skin and is used as a lubricant and an insecticide and in the production of plastics. The nut is rich and distinctively flavoured.  [source - retrieved from  http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/cashew on  1/03/2013]
 
HABITANT AND GROWTH
The tree is small and evergreen, growing to 10-12m (~32 ft) tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk. The leaves are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, 4 to 22 cm long and 2 to 15 cm broad, with a smooth margin. The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to 26 cm long, each flower small, pale green at first then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals 7 to 15 mm long. The largest cashew tree in the world covers an area of about 7,500 square metres (81,000 sq ft).
The fruit of the cashew tree is an accessory fruit (sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit). What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a hypocarpium, that develops from the pedicel and the receptacle of the cashew flower.  Called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as "marañón", it ripens into a yellow and/or red structure about 5–11 cm long. It is edible, and has a strong "sweet" smell and a sweet taste. The pulp of the cashew apple is very juicy, but the skin is fragile, making it unsuitable for transport. In Latin America, a fruit drink is made from the cashew apple pulp which has a very refreshing taste and tropical flavor that can be described as having notes of mango, raw green pepper, and just a little hint of grapefruit-like citrus.
The true fruit of the cashew tree is a kidney or boxing-glove shaped drupe that grows at the end of the cashew apple. The drupe develops first on the tree, and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple. Within the true fruit is a single seed, the cashew nut. Although a nut in the culinary sense, in the botanical sense the nut of the cashew is a seed. The seed is surrounded by a double shell containing an allergenic phenolic resin, anacardic acid, a potent skin irritant chemically related to the better-known allergenic oil urushiol which is also a toxin found in the related poison ivy. Properly roasting cashews destroys the toxin, but it must be done outdoors as the smoke (not unlike that from burning poison ivy) contains urushiol droplets which can cause severe, sometimes life-threatening, reactions by irritating the lungs. People who are allergic to cashew urushiols may also react to mango or pistachio which are also in the Anacardiaceae family. Some people are allergic to cashew nuts, but cashews are a less frequent allergen than nuts or peanuts.
Dispersal
While native to Northeast Brazil, the Portuguese took the cashew plant to Goa, India, between the years of 1560 and 1565. From there it spread throughout Southeast Asia and eventually Africa.  It is now grown extensively in south Florida up to the Martin County line.  [adapted from  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cashew  on 1/03/2013]
In Genesis 1:11-13, "And God said, Let the earth put forth grass, herbs yielding seed, and fruit-trees bearing fruit after their kind, wherein is the seed thereof, upon the earth: and it was so. 12 And the earth brought forth grass, herbs yielding seed after their kind, and trees bearing fruit, wherein is the seed thereof, after their kind: and God saw that it was good. 13 And there was evening and there was morning, a third day. (American Standard Version, ASV)[for more details, go to  www.jw.org].
 
REPRODUCTION
Cashew trees reproduce sexually with seeds. The cashew flowers are pollinated by bats and many kinds of insects, but they are also capable of self-pollination because they have some monoecious flowers. After pollination, the drupe requires 6 to 8 weeks to mature, with the pseudofruit developing in the last two weeks of the ripening process. The cashew kernel, found inside the shell of the drupe, is the seed of the plant. When the drupe and pseudofruit are ripe, they fall off the tree together. If it lands in moist soil, the seed can germinate within 4 days of falling.
Commercial growers usually raise their cashew crops from seeds. They soak the seeds in water to aid germination and plant them either in a pit at their permanent location or in a planting bag to be transplanted once they have grown large enough. Two to four seeds are planted in each hole, and a month is allowed for germination and growth. The weaker seedlings are then removed, leaving only the strongest one to mature. Seedlings grown in planting bags are transplanted after two months to their permanent location, but this must be done carefully because their roots are very sensitive. Since the cashew tree does not do well when transplanted, it is usually recommended that the trees be planted in their permanent locations, spaced 10 to 12 meters apart to allow them to fully mature. For the first 3 years, the seedlings should be supported against wind, provided with adequate shade, and regularly watered to hasten growth. During this time, intercropping is often practiced with fast-growing crops such as legumes, vegetables, tobacco, chilies, cotton, or peanuts. This allows productive use of the fields until the trees begin to bear fruit in their third year. The trees reach their maximum productivity after 10 years and continue producing fruit for the next 20 years or more. A single tree can produce 200 to 300 fruits in one year.
Cashews can also reproduce asexually through vegetative propagation. If a seedling with desirable traits, such as a high percentage of monoecious flowers (allows greater self-pollination), large fruit size, resistance to pests and disease, etc., is found, vegetative propagation allows growers to produce genetic copies of the tree, ensuring that the new trees will carry on the same traits. Many methods of vegetative reproduction are successful with cashews, including side grafting, wedge grafting, softwood grafting, air and ground layering, chip-budding, top-working, and cutting. As various methods of grafting are further tested and developed, they may become more widely used by farmers and cultivators due to the benefits of being able to select plants with desirable traits as opposed to growing them from seed, which usually results in a wide variety of offspring often unlike their parent plants.
Cashew trees require little attention after their first three years. If left alone, they will grow well and continue to produce fruit. Commercial growers may prune the trees, but pruning is usually limited to clearing away the shoots and lowest branches to make harvesting easier. The fields are weeded to protect the trees, especially around the bases of young trees. Fertilizer and manure are both beneficial to cashew trees. Fertilizers should contain nitrogen and phosphate, as well as zinc if the soil is deficient. Mulching helps retain moisture in the soil and prevents weed growth near the
Cashews are native to Brazil and were spread to India by the Portuguese in the 1500s. Since then, cashews have been introduced to East Africa, South America, Central America, and the West Indies. The main cultivators of cashews are Vietnam, Nigeria, India, Brazil, and Indonesia. The primary importer of cashews is the United States [46]. Japan, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Singapore, and many Middle Eastern countries also purchase large quantities of cashews.
The cashew is a tropical or sub-tropical plant that grows between latitudes of 25 degrees north and south. They are most often found growing in coastal areas. They do best in warm, humid weather, and the optimum temperature is 25 degrees Celsius (77 degrees Fahrenheit). The plants are very susceptible to frost, and temperatures should not fall below 10 degrees Celsius (50 degrees Fahrenheit). However, cashews are drought tolerant because of their extensive root systems. The best range for rainfall is between 1500 to 2000 mm per year. It is also important that they go through a dry season to stimulate flower growth and fruit production .
Cashew trees grow in many kinds of soil, even those soil types that would be intolerable to other plants. They prefer deep, well-drained soil that is sandy or loamy and has a pH of 4.5 to 6.5. They cannot grow in very hard clay, rocky soil, or soil with excess undrained water because it will damage the roots and cause them to rot.
Cashews are pollinated mostly by insects. Wild birds, bats, and other animals eat the cashew apples and aid in dispersal. Since the shell of the drupe is so toxic, causing severe burns to those who try to consume it, most animals eat the apple and throw away the drupe, which allows it to germinate, often in a new location. Humans also consume cashews, either raw or as part of other dishes.
Common pests that afflict the cashew tree include the tea mosquito, the stem and root borer, the leaf and blossom webber, the leaf minor, the shoot and inflorescence tip borer, and the apple and nut borer, as well as several species of thrips (small insects that afflict fruit trees and other plants). These pests can cause severe damage to the trees, especially young ones, by destroying new growth and burrowing inside the trunk, leaves, and fruit. Most pests can be killed using chemical sprays and insecticides.
Harvesting and Uses
Once the nuts are ripe they naturally fall from the tree. Workers harvest them off the ground, usually going through the fields every day to pick up the apples before they spoil . The apples and drupes are separated and processed. Before the cashew kernels can be eaten, they must be removed from their shells without being contaminated by the caustic oil. The removal from the shell is a long process with many steps. First, the drupes are dried for 1 to 3 days, which allows them to be stored until there are enough nuts to roast. Immediately before roasting, the drupes are soaked in water to prevent the kernels from breaking while being processed. The cashews are usually roasted in pans or other devices with holes in them, allowing the oil to be collected as it drains through the holes. Once roasted, the cashews are covered in sand or sawdust to remove any oil remaining on the shells.
Next, the shelling process begins. Cashews are usually shelled manually because of the difficulty in designing machines able to crack open the irregularly-shaped shell without breaking the kernel. While machines are sometimes used, the workers usually break open the shells using wooden hammers. The cashews kernels are separated from the shells and placed on racks in an oven to dry. This causes the testa (seed coat) to become brittle so it can easily be removed by hand. Last, broken and unevenly roasted kernels are sorted out and the good-quality kernels are vacuum-packed for shipping, allowing them to be stored for up to a year.
(Important Note: When roasting, sorting, and processing cashews, gloves and long clothes should be worn to protect any exposed skin from coming in contact with the oil. Cashew nutshell oil squirts from the nuts during roasting and may remain on the shells afterwards. The oil is toxic and will cause severe burns and itching if it gets on the skin.)
Although the kernels are the main product of cashew trees, many other parts of the tree are utilized as well. The cashew apples, though not exported, are often eaten in countries where the trees are grown. Cashew apples can be eaten raw and are also made into jellies, juices, and syrups. They may be dried, candied, preserved in syrup, or fermented and used to make alcoholic beverages such as brandy, gin, and a wine called Feni that is sold in India. Both the cashew kernels and cashew apples have many health benefits. The kernels are low in fat compared to some other nuts such as walnuts or peanuts, and they have plenty of healthy fatty acids, B vitamins, protein, potassium, zinc, iron, and fiber. They are also delicious and may be eaten by themselves or used in cooking. They are frequently used in candy and in Thai, Chinese, and Indian foods. The cashew apple is high in vitamin C, with even more than is found in oranges, and is also full of vitamins and minerals. Aside from food, the apples are also used in body care products such as anti-aging cremes, lotions, and shampoos .
Other products of the cashew tree are taken from the leaves, wood, bark, and shell. The toxic oil from the shell (cashew nutshell liquid) is collected during the roasting process.   It is used to manufacture brake linings, insect repellents, resins, varnishes, and paints. The wood is used to make furniture and packing crates, and the gum is made into glue. The testa is used in animal feed . The leaves, bark, and kernels may be ground up and used in medicine and insect repellent, and the bark and testa both contain tannins and are used to tan leather. An edible cashew oil is produced from the kernels. This is not the same as cashew nutshell oil; it used in cooking and is similar to olive oil.
Parts of the cashew tree are also believed to have medicinal properties. The leaves and bark are made into tea and used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, and colic and to stop bleeding. Various parts of the cashew plant are also used for diabetes, influenza, ulcers, skin disorders, bronchitis, tonsillitis, and other throat problems, and as an antibacterial agent. [source - retrieved from  http://creationwiki.org/Cashew on  1/03/2013]
Bottom of Form
How this tree and other plants absorb water from the ground.   Plants have developed an effective system to absorb, translocate, store, and utilize water.  Plants contain a vast network of conduits, which consists of xylem and phloem tissues.  These conducting tissues start in the roots and continue up through the trunks of trees, into the branches and then into every leaf.  Phloem tissue is made of living elongated cells that are connected to one another and responsible for translocating nutrients and sugars (carbohydrates), which are produced by leaves for energy and growth.  The xylem is also composed of elongated cells but once the cells are formed, they die.  The walls of the xylem cells still remain intact and serve as an excellent peipline to transport water from the roots to the leaves.
 
The main driving force of water uptake and transport into a plant is transpiration of water from leaves through specialized openings called stomata.  Heat from the sun causes the water to evaporate, setting this ‘water chain’ in motion.  The evaporation creates a negative water vapor pressure.  Water is pulled into the leaf to replace the water that has transpired from the leaf.  This pulling of water, or tension, occurs in the xylem of the leaf.  Since the xylem is a continuous water column that extends from the leaf to the roots, this negative water pressure extends into the roots and results in water uptake from the soil.  [adapted from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=follow-up-how-do-trees-ca ]
 
Clearly this clever water transport system shows a superior intelligence of the Creator (YHWH).
 
 
Now to know the truth, go to:
 
1) http://religioustruths.forumsland.com/
 
2) http://www.network54.com/Forum/403209/
 
3) http://religioustruths.lefora.com/
 
4) http://religioustruths.boardhost.com/
 
5) http://religious-truths.forums.com/
 
6) http://religioustruthsbyiris.createmybb3.com/
 
7) http://religioustruths.forumotion.com/
 
 
Your Friend in Christ Iris89
 
Francis David said it long ago, "Neither the sword of popes...nor the image of death will halt the march of truth."Francis David, 1579, written on the wall of his prison cell." Read the book, "What Does The Bible Really Teach" and the Bible today, and go to www.jw.org!
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Hi Everyone:
 
Here is a Commentary on Bountiful Trees and Vegetables God (YHWH) has provided for mankind, specifically the Amaranthus species.
 
Amaranthaceae
Amaranth, Achis, achita, african spinach, amarante, bledos, bondue, bush greens, choito, coimi, coyo, cuime, green leaf, buautli, Indian spinach, Joseph's-coat, kiwicha, livid amaranth, love-lies-bleeding, millmi, pale-seeded amaranth, pigweed, princess-feather, purple amaranth, quintonil, redroot, spinach-grass, Surinam spinach, wild beet, wild blite
Many species are used including:
* Amaranthus atropurpureus - Lal-nati
* A. caudatus - Pendant amaranth, Love-lies-bleeding, Tassel flower
* A. cruentus - Mexican grain amaranth, Purple amaranth, Prince's feather
* A. cruentus x A. powellii - Hopi red-dye, Komo
* A. dubius - Khada sag, Bayam bhaji
* A. graecizans - Prostrate amaranth
* A. hybridus - pigweed, wild beet
* A. hypochondriacas - Guegui, Bledo, Ramdana
* A. lividus - Purple amaranth
* A. mantegazzianus - Quinoa de Castilla
* A. paniculatus - Reuzen amaranth
* A. quitensis - Ataco, Sangorache
* A. retroflexus - Redroot pigweed
* A. spinosus - Blero Spinach, Calaloo, Calalu, Prickly amaranth
* A. tricolor - Tampala, Joseph's coat
* A. viridus - Green amaranth, Bayam hedjo
 
NewCROP has Amaranth information at:
Non-Shattering Grain Amaranth Populations—D.M. Brenner
Response of Grain Amaranth Production to Density and Fertilization in Tarija, Bolivia—V. Apaza-Gutierrez, A. Romero-Saravia, F.R. Guillén-Portal, and D.D. Baltensperger
Grain Amaranth—Charles S. Kauffman and Leon E. Weber
Amaranth Rediscovered—Gilbert F. Stallknecht and J.R. Schulz-Schaeffer
Amaranth Production in Mexico and Peru—Daniel K. Early
Simply Inherited Genetic Variation in Grain Amaranth (Abstract)—P.A. Kulakow
Hybridization of Grain Amaranths: Implications for Long-term Development (Abstract)—J.W Lehmann and R.L. Clark
Amaranth Intercropping Techniques of Andean Quechua Peasants (Abstract)—Daniel K. Early
Row Spacing and Population Effects on Yield of Grain Amaranth in North Dakota—T.L. Henderson, A.A. Schneiter, and N. Riveland
Amaranth: New Crop Opportunity—Robert L. Myers
Grain Amaranth Harvest Timeliness in Eastern North Dakota—S.A. Fitterer, B.L. Johnson, and A.A. Schneiter
Determining Amaranth and Canola Suitability in Missouri Through Geographic Information Systems Analysis—Robert L. Myers
Field Evaluation of Grain Amaranth in Chile—Marisol Berti, Humberto Serri, Rosemarie Wilckens, and Inés Figueroa
Variability in 'Plainsman' Grain Amaranth—F.R. Guillen-Portal, D.D. Baltensperger, L.A. Nelson, and N. D'Croz-Mason
Plant Population Influence on Yield and Agronomic Traits in 'Plainsman' Grain Amaranth—F.R. Guillen-Portal, D.D. Baltensperger, and L.A. Nelson
Amaranth: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service, University of Minnesota Extension Service, Center for Alternative Plant & Animal Products
Neglected Crops: 1492 from a Different Perspective. 1994. J.E. Hernándo Bermejo and J. León (eds.).
Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus hypochondriacus
Amaranthus caudatus
Vegetable amaranth
Vegetable Amaranths: Cultivar Selection for Summer Production in the South—Ramsey L. Sealy, E.L McWilhams, J. Novak, F. Fong, and C.M. Kenerley
Population Density and Soil pH Effects on Vegetable Amaranth Production—Bharat P. Singh and Wayne F. Whitehead
Management Methods for Producing Vegetable Amaranth—Bharat P. Singh and Wayne F. Whitehead
Evaluation of Tropical Leaf Vegetables in the Virgin Islands—Manuel C. Palada and Stafford M.A. Crossman
New Crops in the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System—Henry L. Shands and George A. White
Chinese Amaranth In: Magness, J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Blero Spinach In: Magness, J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Outside links to more Amaranth info:
Kiwicha can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
Amaranth Grain Production in Nebraska
All about Amaranths (Chinese Spinach) from Texas A & M University.
(source - retrieved from   http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/amaranthus_spp_nex.html  on  3/8/2013)
 
And an encyclopedia says, “"Amarantus" redirects here. For the ancient Greek writer, see Amarantus of Alexandria. For other uses, see Amaranth (disambiguation). Amaranthus, collectively known as amaranth, is a cosmopolitan genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants. Catkin-like cymes of densely packed flowers grow in summer or autumn.[1] Approximately 60 species are recognized, with inflorescences and foliage ranging from purple and red to green or gold. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus Celosia.
 
Although several species are often considered weeds, people around the world value amaranths as leaf vegetables, cereals, and ornamental plants.
"Amaranth" derives from Greek [2] (amarantos), "unfading," with the Greek word for "flower," ????? (anthos), factoring into the word's development as "amaranth." The more accurate "amarant" is an archaic variant.
Amaranthus shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. Although the family (Amaranthaceae) is distinctive, the genus has few distinguishing characters among the 70 species included.[3] This complicates taxonomy and Amaranthus has generally been considered among systematists as a "difficult" genus.[4]
 
Formerly, Sauer (1955) classified the genus into two subgenera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species: Acnida (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and Amaranthus.[4] Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group.
 
Currently, Amaranthus includes three recognized subgenera and 70 species, although species numbers are questionable due to hybridization and species concepts.[5] Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification.[3] A modified infrageneric classification of Amaranthus was published by Mosyakin & Robertson (1996) and includes three subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus, and Albersia. The taxonomy is further differentiated by sections within each of the subgenera.[6]
 
Species
* Amaranthus acanthochiton – greenstripe
* Amaranthus acutilobus – sharp-lobe amaranth; is a synonym of Amaranthus viridis[7]
* Amaranthus albus – white pigweed, prostrate pigweed, pigweed amaranth
* Amaranthus arenicola – sandhill amaranth
* Amaranthus australis – southern amaranth
* Amaranthus bigelovii – Bigelow's amaranth
* Amaranthus blitoides – mat amaranth, prostrate amaranth, prostrate pigweed
* Amaranthus blitum – purple amaranth
* Amaranthus brownii – Brown's amaranth
* Amaranthus californicus – California amaranth, California pigweed
* Amaranthus cannabinus – tidal-marsh amaranth
* Amaranthus caudatus – love-lies-bleeding, pendant amaranth, tassel flower, quilete
* Amaranthus chihuahuensis – Chihuahuan amaranth
* Amaranthus chlorostachys
* Amaranthus crassipes – spreading amaranth
* Amaranthus crispus – crispleaf amaranth
* Amaranthus cruentus – purple amaranth, red amaranth, Mexican grain amaranth
* Amaranthus deflexus – large-fruit amaranth
* Amaranthus dubius – spleen amaranth, khada sag
* Amaranthus fimbriatus – fringed amaranth, fringed pigweed
* Amaranthus floridanus – Florida amaranth
* Amaranthus gangeticus – elephant head amaranth
* Amaranthus graecizans
* Amaranthus greggii – Gregg's amaranth
* Amaranthus hybridus – smooth amaranth, smooth pigweed, red amaranth
* Amaranthus hypochondriacus – Prince-of-Wales feather, prince's feather
* Amaranthus leucocarpus
* Amaranthus lineatus – Australian amaranth
* Amaranthus lividus
* Amaranthus mantegazzianus – quinoa de Castilla
* Amaranthus minimus
* Amaranthus muricatus – African amaranth
* Amaranthus obcordatus – Trans-Pecos amaranth
* Amaranthus oleraceous – kosala sag
* Amaranthus palmeri – Palmer's amaranth, Palmer pigweed, careless weed
* Amaranthus paniculus – Reuzen amarant
* Amaranthus polygonoides – tropical amaranth
* Amaranthus powellii – green amaranth, Powell amaranth, Powell pigweed
* Amaranthus pringlei – Pringle's amaranth
* Amaranthus pumilus – seaside amaranth
* Amaranthus quitensis – ataco, sangorache
* Amaranthus retroflexus – red-root amaranth, redroot pigweed, common amaranth
* Amaranthus rudis – tall amaranth, common waterhemp
* Amaranthus scleropoides – bone-bract amaranth
* Amaranthus spinosus – spiny amaranth, prickly amaranth, thorny amaranth
* Amaranthus standleyanus
* Amaranthus thunbergii – Thunberg's amaranth
* Amaranthus torreyi – Torrey's amaranth
* Amaranthus tricolor – Joseph's-coat
* Amaranthus tuberculatus – rough-fruit amaranth, tall waterhemp
* Amaranthus viridis – slender amaranth, green amaranth
* Amaranthus watsonii – Watson's amaranth
* Amaranthus wrightii – Wright's amaranth
 
Human uses
 
Amaranth seed
Several species are raised for amaranth "grain" in Asia and the Americas. This should more correctly be termed "pseudograin" (see below).
Ancient amaranth grains still used to this day include the three species, Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus cruentus, and Amaranthus hypochondriacus.[8] Although amaranth was cultivated on a large scale in ancient Mexico, Guatemala, and Peru, nowadays it is only cultivated on a small scale there, along with India, China, Nepal, and other tropical countries; thus, there is potential for further cultivation in those countries, as well as in the U.S. In a 1977 article in Science, amaranth was described as "the crop of the future."[9] It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:
 
1. It is easily harvested.
2. Its seeds are a good source of protein. Compared to other grains, amaranth is unusually rich in the essential amino acid lysine.[10] Common grains such as wheat and corn are comparatively rich in amino acids that amaranth lacks; thus, amaranth and other grains can complement each other.[11][12][13]
3. The seeds of Amaranthus species contain about thirty percent more protein than cereals like rice, sorghum and rye.[11] In cooked and edible forms, amaranth is competitive with wheat germ and oats - higher in some nutrients, lower in others.[14]
4. It is easy to cook. As befits its weedy life history, amaranth grains grow very rapidly and their large seedheads can weigh up to 1 kilogram and contain a half-million seeds in three species of amaranth.[13]
Kiwicha, as amaranth is known today in the Andes, was one of the staple foodstuffs of the Incas. Known to the Aztecs as huautli, it is thought to have represented up to 80% of their caloric consumption before the conquest. Another important use of amaranth throughout Mesoamerica was to prepare ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like popcorn and mixed with honey, molasses or chocolate to make a treat called alegría, meaning "joy" in Spanish. Diego Duran described the festivities for Huitzilopochtli, a blue hummingbird god. (Real hummingbirds feed on amaranth flowers.) The Aztec month of Panquetzaliztli (7 December to 26 December) was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; there were ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finally human sacrifices. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth (huautli) seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a little piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were subsumed into the Christmas celebration.
 
Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, its gluten-free palatability, easy to cook, and its protein particularly well suited to human nutritional needs, interest in grain amaranth (especially A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus) revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack sold in Mexico, sometimes mixed with chocolate or puffed rice, and its use has spread to Europe and parts of North America. Amaranth and quinoa are called pseudograins because of their flavor and cooking similarities to grains.
 
Amaranth seed flour
Amaranth seed flour has been evaluated as an additive to wheat flour by food specialists. To determine palatability, different levels of amaranth grain flour were mixed with the wheat flour and baking ingredients (1% salt, 2.5% fat, 1.5% yeast, 10% sugar and 52–74% water), fermented, molded, pan-proved and baked. The baked products were evaluated for loaf volume, moisture content, color, odor, taste and texture. The amaranth containing products were then compared with bread made from 100% wheat flour. The loaf volume decreased by 40% and the moisture content increased from 22 to 42% with increase in amaranth grain flour. The study found that the sensory scores of the taste, odor color and texture decreased with increasing amounts of amaranth. Generally, above 15% amaranth grain flour, there were significant differences in the evaluated sensory qualities and the high amaranth-containing product was found to be of unacceptable palatability to the population sample that evaluated the baked products.[15]
 
Leaves, roots, and stems
Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable in many parts of the world. There are four species of Amaranthus documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern Asia: Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus blitum, Amaranthus dubius, and Amaranthus tricolor.[16]
 
In Indonesia and Malaysia, leaf amaranth is called bayam, while the Tagalogs in the Philippines call the plant kilitis or "kulitis". The Ilocanos (Philippines) call it "kalunay". In the state of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India, it is called Chaulai and is a popular green leafy vegetable (referred to in the class of vegetable preparations called saag). It is called Chua in Kumaun area of Uttarakhand, where it is a popular red-green vegetable. In Karnataka state in India, it is called Harive It is used to prepare curries like Hulee, palya, Majjigay-hulee and so on. In the state of Kerala, it is called 'Cheera' and is consumed by stir-frying the leaves with spices and red chillies to make 'Cheera Thoran'. In Tamil Nadu State, and is regularly consumed as a favourite dish, where the greens are steamed, and mashed, with light seasoning of salt, red chillis and cumin. It is called keerai masial In Andhra Pradesh this leaf is added in preparation of a popular dal called thotakura pappu (Telugu). In Maharashtra, it is called "Shravani Maath" (literally grown in month of Shravan) and it is available in both red and white colour. In Orissa, it is called "Khada saga", it is used to prepare 'Saga Bhaja', in which the leaf is fried with chillies and onions.
 
The root of mature amaranth is a popular vegetable. It is white and cooked with tomatoes or tamarind gravy. It has a milky taste and is alkaline.
In China, the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable, or in soups, and called ?? (Mandarin Pinyin: xiàncài; Cantonese Jyutping: jin6 coi3) with variations in various dialects). Amaranth greens are believed to help enhance eyesight. In Vietnam, it is called rau d?n and is used to make soup. There are two species popular as edible vegetable in Vietnam: d?n ??- amaranthus tricolor and d?n c?m or d?n tr?ng- amaranthus viridis.
 
A traditional food plant in Africa, amaranth has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable land care.[17] In East Africa, amaranth leaf is known in chewa as bonongwe, and in Swahili as mchicha, as terere in Kikuyu, Meru and Embu; and as telele in Kamba. In Bantu regions of Uganda it is known as doodo.[18] It is recommended by some doctors for people having low red blood cell count. It is also known among the Kalenjin as a drought crop (chepkerta). In Lingala (spoken in the Congo), it is known as l?ngal?nga or bít?kut?ku.[19] In Nigeria, it is a common vegetable and goes with all Nigerian starch dishes. It is known in Yoruba as efo tete or arowo jeja (meaning "we have money left over for fish"). In the Caribbean, the leaves are called bhaji in Trinidad and callaloo in Jamaica, and are stewed with onions, garlic and tomatoes, or sometimes used in a soup called pepperpot soup.
In Greece, green amaranth (Amaranthus viridis) is a popular dish and is called vlita or vleeta. It is boiled, then served with olive oil and lemon like a salad, usually alongside fried fish. Greeks stop harvesting the plant (which usually grows wild) when it starts to bloom at the end of August.
In Sri Lanka, it is called "koora thampala". Sri Lankans cook it and eat it with rice. Fiji Indians call it choraiya bhaji.
 
Dyes
The flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by the Hopi (a tribe in the western United States) as the source of a deep red dye. There is also a synthetic dye that has been named "amaranth" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranth pigments known as betalains. This synthetic dye is also known as Red No. 2 in North America and E123 in the European Union.[20]
 
Ornamentals
The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as Amaranthus caudatus (love-lies-bleeding), a native of India and a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish flowers crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, A. hypochondriacus (prince's feather), has deeply veined lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes.
 
Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the nutmeg moth and various case-bearer moths of the genus Coleophora: C. amaranthella, C. enchorda (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C. immortalis (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C. lineapulvella and C. versurella (recorded on A. spinosus).
 
Nutritional value
Amaranth greens, also called Chau lai (Hindi) and Chu or Chua (Kumauni), Chinese spinach, hinn choy or yin tsoi (simplified Chinese: ??; traditional Chinese: ??; pinyin: xiàncài); callaloo in the Caribbean, dhantinasoppu / harive (Kannada); (Telugu); Rajgira (Marathi); (Tamil); cheera ??? (Malayalam); bayam (Indonesian); phak khom (Thai); tampala, or quelite (Oriya); Khada Saga, are a common leaf vegetable throughout the tropics and in many warm temperate regions.
 
Cooked amaranth leaves are a good source of vitamin A, vitamin C, and folate; they are also a complementing source of other vitamins such as thiamine, niacin, and riboflavin, plus some dietary minerals including calcium, iron, potassium, zinc, copper, and manganese. Cooked amaranth grains are a complementing source of thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, and folate, and dietary minerals including calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, copper, and manganese - comparable to common grains such as wheat germ, oats and others.[14]
 
Amaranth seeds contain lysine, an essential amino acid, limited in other grains or plant sources.[21] Most fruits and vegetables do not contain a complete set of amino acids, and thus different sources of protein must be used. Amaranth too is limited in some essential amino acids, such as leucine and threonine.[22][23] Amaranth seeds are therefore promising complement to common grains such as wheat germ, oats, corn because these common grains are abundant sources of essential amino acids found to be limited in amaranth.[24][25]
Amaranth may be a promising source of protein to those who are gluten sensitive, because unlike the protein found in grains such as wheat and rye, its protein does not contain gluten.[26] According to a 2007 report, amaranth compares well in nutrient content with gluten-free vegetarian options such as buckwheat, corn, millet, wild rice, oats and quinoa.[27][28]
 
Several studies have shown that like oats, amaranth seed or oil may be of benefit for those with hypertension and cardiovascular disease; regular consumption reduces blood pressure and cholesterol levels, while improving antioxidant status and some immune parameters.[29][30][31] While the active ingredient in oats appears to be water-soluble fiber, amaranth appears to lower cholesterol via its content of plant stanols and squalene.
 
Amaranth remains an active area of scientific research for both human nutritional needs and foraging applications. Over 100 scientific studies suggest a somewhat conflicting picture on possible anti-nutritional and toxic factors in amaranth, more so in some particular strains of amaranth. Lehmann, in a review article, identifies some of these reported anti-nutritional factors in amaranth to be phenolics, saponins, tannins, phytic acid, oxalates, protease inhibitors, nitrates, polyphenols and phytohemagglutinins.[32] Of these, oxalates and nitrates are of more concern when amaranth grain is used in foraging applications. Some studies suggest thermal processing of amaranth, particularly in moist environment, prior to its preparation in food and human consumption may be a promising way to reduce the adverse effects of amaranth's anti-nutritional and toxic factors.
 
As a weed
Not all amaranth plants are cultivated. Most of the species from Amaranthus are summer annual weeds and are commonly referred to as pigweeds.[33] These species have an extended period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production,[33] and have been causing problems for farmers since the mid-1990s. This is partially due to the reduction in tillage, reduction in herbicidal use and the evolution of herbicidal resistance in several species where herbicides have been applied more often.[34] The following 9 species of Amaranthus are considered invasive and noxious weeds in the U.S and Canada: A. albus, A. blitoides, A. hybridus, A. palmeri, A. powellii, A. retroflexus, A. spinosus, A. tuberculatus, and A. viridis.[35]
 
A new herbicide-resistant strain of Amaranthus palmeri has appeared; it is Glyphosate-resistant and so cannot be killed by the widely used Roundup herbicide. Also, this plant can survive in tough conditions. This could be of particular concern to cotton farmers using Roundup Ready cotton.[36] The species Amaranthus palmeri (Palmer amaranth) causes the greatest reduction in soybean yields and has the potential to reduce yields by 17-68% in field experiments.[33] Palmer amaranth is among the "top five most troublesome weeds" in the southeast of the United States and has already evolved resistances to dinitroanilines and acetolactate synthase inhibitors.[37] This makes the proper identification of Amaranthus species at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper weed control needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes significant yield reductions.
 
Beneficial weed
Pigweed can be a beneficial weed, as well as a companion plant, serving as a trap for leaf miners and some other pests, as well as sheltering ground beetles (which prey upon insect pests) and breaking up hard soil for more delicate neighboring plants.
 
Seed saving
There are a multitude of varieties which cross with one another very easily. Even some species have been found to cross with one another e.g. Amaranthus caudatus and Amaranthus hypochondriacus. For most types, flowering occurs as the days become shorter.
 
Being wind-pollinated, they will cross with one another if less than 400 metres apart at flowering time. The seed heads mature gradually from bottom to top. Careful selection is needed every time a plant is chosen for seed. Inferior individuals should be rogued, or pulled out, before they can flower and pollinate better plants.
 
To maximise seed harvest, shake the near-mature seed heads into a paper bag or onto a canvas. If the growing area is large, it is faster to cut the heads all at once when most of the seeds are ripe. The fully ripened heads tend to drop their seeds.
 
Dry for a week and thresh the heads with gloved hands or feet on canvas as the chaff is somewhat prickly. The seeds may be lost when winnowing because the chaff and seeds are of similar size and the seeds are of a light weight. If you heap uncleaned seeds in a bowl and toss them, the light debris will concentrate on the top and can be blown away. Repeat this until only seeds remain.[38]
 
References
1. ^ RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. pp. 1136. ISBN 1405332964.
2. ^ Liddell & Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, s.v. ?????????
3. ^ a b Juan et al. (2007). "Electrophoretic characterization of Amaranthus L. seed proteins and its systematic implication". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 155: 57–63. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2007.00665.x.
4. ^ a b Costea M, DeMason D (2001). "Stem morphology and anatomy in Amaranthus L. (Amaranthaceae)- Taxonomic significance". Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 128 (3): 254–281. doi:10.2307/3088717.
5. ^ Judd et al. (2008). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, Third Edition. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Sunderland, MA
6. ^ Mosyakin & Robertson (1996). "New infrageneric taxa and combinations in Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae)". Ann. Bot. Fennici 33: 275–281.
7. ^ The Plant List - Amaranthus acutilobus
8. ^ Costea et al. (2006). Delimitation of A. cruentus L. and A. caudatus L. using micromorphology and AFLP analysis: an application in germplasm identification. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 53: 1625-1633.
9. ^ Marx (1977). Speaking of Science: Amaranth: A Comeback for the Food of the Aztecs? Science 198(4312): 40.
10. ^ http://foodwiki.com/vprotein/default/chart?combo=1059
11. ^ a b De Macvean & Pöll (1997). Chapter 8: Ethnobotany. Tropical Tree Seed Manual, USDA Forest Service, edt. J.A Vozzo.
12. ^ http://foodwiki.com/vprotein/default/index?filter=all+foods&opt=maximize+efficiency&protein=25.0&q=Amaranth%2C+uncooked
13. ^ a b Tucker, J. (1986). Amaranth: the once and future crop. Bioscience 36(1): 9-13.
14. ^ a b "USDA nutrient database, search for: cooked amaranth, wheat germ, oats". http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.
15. ^ Jerome Ayo (2001). "THE EFFECT OF AMARANTH GRAIN FLOUR ON THE QUALITY OF BREAD". International Journal of Food Properties 4 (2). doi:10.1081/JFP-100105198. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1081/JFP-100105198.
16. ^ Costea (2003). Notes on Economic Plants. Economic Botany 57(4): 646-649
17. ^ "Amaranth". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables. Lost Crops of Africa. 2. National Academies Press. 2006-10-27. ISBN 978-0-309-10333-6. OCLC 79635740 34344933 79635740. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11763&page=35. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
18. ^ Goode,. Edible plants of Uganda. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
19. ^ Enama, M. (1994). "Culture: The missing nexus in ecological economics perspective". Ecological Economics 10 (10): 93–95. doi:10.1016/0921-8009(94)00010-7.
20. ^ "The following color additives are not authorized for use in food products in the United States: (1) Amaranth (C.I. 16185, EEC No. E123, formerly certifiable as FD&C red No. 2);" FDA/CFSAN Food Compliance Program: Domestic Food Safety Program
21. ^ Reference Library | WholeHealthMD
22. ^ Ricardo Bressani, Luiz G. Elias and Arnoldo Garcia-Soto (1989). "Limiting amino acids in raw and processed amaranth grain protein from biological tests". Plant foods for human nutrition (Kluwer Academic Publishers) 39 (3): 223–234. doi:10.1007/BF01091933.
23. ^ Kaufmann Weber et al (1998). "Advances in New Crops". Purdue University. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1990/v1-TOC.html.
24. ^ "Chemical Composition of the Above-ground Biomass of Amaranthus cruentus and A. hypochondriacus". ACTA VET. BRNO 75: 133–138. 2006. http://actavet.vfu.cz/pdf/200675010133.pdf.
25. ^ "Amaranth - Alternative Field Crops Manual". University of Wisconsin & University of Minneasota. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/amaranth.html. Retrieved September 2011.
26. ^ 10 Reasons to Use Amaranth in Your Gluten-Free Recipes, by Teri Gruss, URL accessed Oct 2009.
27. ^ "The gluten-free vegetarian". Practical Gastroenterology: 94–106. May 2007. http://www.practicalgastro.com/pdf/May07/May07PaganoArticle.pdf.
28. ^ Gallagher, E.; T. R. Gormley, E. K. Arendt. "Recent advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products". Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (3-4): 143–152. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224403002590. Retrieved 2011-06-26.
29. ^ Czerwi?ski J, Bartnikowska E, Leontowicz H, et al. (Oct 2004). "Oat (Avena sativa L.) and amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) meals positively affect plasma lipid profile in rats fed cholesterol-containing diets". J. Nutr. Biochem. 15 (10): 622–9. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2004.06.002. PMID 15542354.
30. ^ Gonor KV, Pogozheva AV, Derbeneva SA, Mal'tsev GIu, Trushina EN, Mustafina OK (2006). "[The influence of a diet with including amaranth oil on antioxidant and immune status in patients with ischemic heart disease and hyperlipoproteidemia]" (in Russian). Vopr Pitan 75 (6): 30–3. PMID 17313043.
31. ^ Martirosyan DM, Miroshnichenko LA, Kulakova SN, Pogojeva AV, Zoloedov VI (2007). "Amaranth oil application for coronary heart disease and hypertension". Lipids Health Dis 6: 1. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-6-1. PMC 1779269. PMID 17207282. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1779269/.
32. ^ "Legacy - The Official Newsletter of Amaranth Institute; see pages 6-9". Amaranth Institute. 1992. http://www.ars-grin.gov/ars/MidWest/Ames/repository/oldsitearchive/Reports_New/Special_Reports/Amaranth/Legacy92.pdf.
33. ^ a b c Bensch et al. (2003). Interference of redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), Palmer amaranth (A. palmeri), and common waterhemp (A. rudis) in soybean. Weed Science 51: 37-43.
34. ^ Wetzel et al. (1999). Use of PCR-based molecular markers to identify weedy Amaranthus species. Weed Science 47: 518-523.
35. ^ USDA Plant Database. Plants Profile- Amaranthus L
36. ^ Herbicide Resistant Weeds Causing Problems for US Cotton Growers
37. ^ Culpepper et al. (2006). Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) confirmed in Georgia. Weed Science 54: 620-626.
38. ^ Fanton M., Fanton J. (1993). Seed Savers' Handbook. pp. 53-54.
39. ^ Aesopica site
40. ^ http://www.bartleby.com/126/35.html  (source - retrieved from  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth   on  3/8/2013)
In Genesis 1:11-13, "And God said, Let the earth put forth grass, herbs yielding seed, and fruit-trees bearing fruit after their kind, wherein is the seed thereof, upon the earth: and it was so. 12 And the earth brought forth grass, herbs yielding seed after their kind, and trees bearing fruit, wherein is the seed thereof, after their kind: and God saw that it was good. 13 And there was evening and there was morning, a third day. (American Standard Version, ASV)[for more details, go to  www.jw.org].
 
Personally, I prefer Chinese Giant Orange Amaranth over all other varieties.  Its leaves when picked before they grow old taste very much lick spinach, and the grain heads produce much grain.  I use the grain in soups, casseroles, stews, salads, and other items. 
 
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Your Friend in Christ Iris89
 
Francis David said it long ago, "Neither the sword of popes...nor the image of death will halt the march of truth."Francis David, 1579, written on the wall of his prison cell." Read the book, "What Does The Bible Really Teach" and the Bible today, and go to www.jw.org!
 
 
 

Hi Everyone:
 
Here is a Commentary on Bountiful Trees and Vegetables God (YHWH) has provided for mankind, specifically the Annona scleroderma, Family: Annonaceae, common names Posh-te, Cawesh, Poshte, Origin: Honduras, Guatemala
 
    A. scleroderma is a tall tree which reaches 15 to 20 m and has tough, lanceolate leaves measuring 10 to 25 x 5 to 8 cm. They are shiny on the upper side, slightly pubescent on the underside and have fragile, 3 cm long petioles. The flowers are greenish yellow, the outer petals have a longitudinal prominence which arises in the small branches or in groups in the old part of the thick branches. The cream-colored flesh has a creamy banana-pineapple like flavor and a soft texture. Said to be one of the most flavorful and refreshing Annona's, but the poshe-te is still elusive outside its native range. This round fruit, relatively little known has a rich aromatic and delicious flavor. The fruit is the size of an orange and has a dull green surface with perfectly textured pulp. Unlike some other Annonas, the pulp is not fibrous. The tough skin allows it to be handled easily and makes it resistant to insect attack. The trees should be pruned so that a wide crown remains to facilitate fruit harvesting. This also reduces exposure to wind and bird damage.
[source - retrieved from  http://toptropicals.com/catalog/uid/Annona_scleroderma.htm on  1/03/2013]
 
This Annona, the Cawesh, is extremely rare and is very little known, but has one of the finest flavors of any fruit in the world.
 
To see a picture of the fruit which resembles a sugar apple, go to  http://eol.org/pages/1054874/overview
 
In Genesis 1:11-13, "And God said, Let the earth put forth grass, herbs yielding seed, and fruit-trees bearing fruit after their kind, wherein is the seed thereof, upon the earth: and it was so. 12 And the earth brought forth grass, herbs yielding seed after their kind, and trees bearing fruit, wherein is the seed thereof, after their kind: and God saw that it was good. 13 And there was evening and there was morning, a third day. (American Standard Version, ASV)[for more details, go to  www.jw.org].
 
More on the Annona liebmanniana, more widely known under the synonym Annona scleroderma, is a species in the Annonaceae family, with an edible fruit the size of an orange. Common names include cawesh and posh-té (also spelled poshte or poshe-te). Related species include cherimoya (A. cherimola) and sugar-apple (A. squamosa); paw paw (Asimina triloba) is also in the family. The species is native to the Atlantic coast of Central America, from Mexico and Guatemala to Honduras, where it grows at altitudes under 1,230 meters (4,000 feet) and is locally important, but not widely cultivated outside of Guatemala, although it is sometimes grafted onto root stock from other species and grown in Australia (FAO 1994). Seeds are available through various tropical fruit specialty catalogs in Hawaii and elsewhere. Cawesh trees grow to a larger size than other annonas, up to 20 m (65 feet), which makes fruit harder to harvest than in the other species (FAO 1994, Popenoe 1920), although the trees are more productive. The evergreen or semi-deciduous leaves are large, thick, and leathery, up to 25 cm (10 inches) long and 8 cm (3 inches) wide. The fruit, which is produced starting when the tree reaches four years of age, is oblong, roughly 7 cm (3 inches) in diameter, with a relatively thin but tough exocarp, or skin (0.6 cm, or ¼ inch), which makes the fruit relatively insect resistant and easy to handle without bruising. The fruit’s cream-colored flesh has a pleasant aroma creamy banana-pineapple flavor, and a soft texture. It is generally eaten fresh or pulp can be used to make beverages (FAO 1994, Mansfield 2011) [source - retrieved from  http://eol.org/pages/1054874/overview  on  1/03/2013] .
 
How this tree and other plants absorb water from the ground.   Plants have developed an effective system to absorb, translocate, store, and utilize water.  Plants contain a vast network of conduits, which consists of xylem and phloem tissues.  These conducting tissues start in the roots and continue up through the trunks of trees, into the branches and then into every leaf.  Phloem tissue is made of living elongated cells that are connected to one another and responsible for translocating nutrients and sugars (carbohydrates), which are produced by leaves for energy and growth.  The xylem is also composed of elongated cells but once the cells are formed, they die.  The walls of the xylem cells still remain intact and serve as an excellent peipline to transport water from the roots to the leaves.
 
The main driving force of water uptake and transport into a plant is transpiration of water from leaves through specialized openings called stomata.  Heat from the sun causes the water to evaporate, setting this ‘water chain’ in motion.  The evaporation creates a negative water vapor pressure.  Water is pulled into the leaf to replace the water that has transpired from the leaf.  This pulling of water, or tension, occurs in the xylem of the leaf.  Since the xylem is a continuous water column that extends from the leaf to the roots, this negative water pressure extends into the roots and results in water uptake from the soil.  [adapted from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=follow-up-how-do-trees-ca ]
 
Clearly this clever water transport system shows a superior intelligence of the Creator (YHWH).
 
 
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Your Friend in Christ Iris89
 
Francis David said it long ago, "Neither the sword of popes...nor the image of death will halt the march of truth."Francis David, 1579, written on the wall of his prison cell." Read the book, "What Does The Bible Really Teach" and the Bible today, and go to www.jw.org! 

Hi Everyone:
 
Here is a Commentary on Bountiful Trees and Vegetables God (YHWH) has provided for mankind, specifically the Dovyalis hebecarpa, commonly known as Ceylon gooseberry, Kitembilla or Ketembilla, is a plant in the genus Dovyalis, native to Sri Lanka and southern India.
 
It is a shrub or small tree growing to 6 m tall, with sharp, 3–6 cm long stem spines in the leaf axils. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple broad lanceolate, 5–10 cm long and 1–3 cm broad, with an entire or finely toothed margin.
 
The flowers are inconspicuous, solitary or clustered, with no petals. It is dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants, though some female plants are parthenogenetic.
 
The fruit is an edible dark purple globose berry 2–3 cm diameter, very juicy with an acidic flavour, and containing several small seeds. Kitembilla fruit, which taste similar to a gooseberry (they are sometimes called "Ceylon Gooseberry"), are often eaten fresh, or made into jam. Some cultivars have been selected for being thornless (making harvesting easier) and larger fruit. [source - retrieved from  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceylon_gooseberry  on  1/04/2013]
 
Ceylon Gooseberry    
Dovyalis. Flacourtiaceae. Fifteen species of dioecious shrubs or small trees, sometimes with axillary spines. Leaves alternate, simple, pinnately veined, usually 3-nerved at the base, with a short petiole and small deciduous stipules. Male flowers many, clustered in the axils, with 4-7 hairy sepals, no petals, and numerous stamens and glands bourne on a fleshy disc; female flowers solitary or a few together, with 5-9 peristent hairy sepals and no petals; ovary 2-8-celled. Fruit an indehiscent berry. Africa, India, Sri Lanka.
 
Cultivation   
Dovyalis caffra, from warm coastal habitats, is a vigorous, drought-resistant species once established. It is grown for its aromatic fruits, which have a flavour similar to apricots, eaten bletted or in jam. The dense, spiny shoots make an impenetrable barrier, and it is well suited for hedging in zones that are frost-free or almost so. In climates with hot summers, where wood becomes well-ripened, Dovyalis caffra, with tolerate temperatures to between -5ºC and -7ºC. Dovyalis hebecarpa and Dovyalis abyssinica (the latter possibly the most ornamental of the genus) occur naturally in warm, humid and subtropical climates and in temperate zones are grown in the warm glasshouse, with a winter minimum of 7-10ºC. Plant in fertile, humus-rich, well-drained soils in full sun. Space Dovyalis caffra at 1-1.5m for hedging, 4-5m for fruit trees; a ratio of 1:30 male to female plants is adequate to ensure pollination. Propagate from seed; plants will fruit at 4-5 years of age. Also by layering. Graft or shield-bud desirbale varieties on to seedling rootstocks. [source - retrieved from http://growfruit.tripod.com/ceylon.htm  on  1/04/2013]
 
In Genesis 1:11-13, "And God said, Let the earth put forth grass, herbs yielding seed, and fruit-trees bearing fruit after their kind, wherein is the seed thereof, upon the earth: and it was so. 12 And the earth brought forth grass, herbs yielding seed after their kind, and trees bearing fruit, wherein is the seed thereof, after their kind: and God saw that it was good. 13 And there was evening and there was morning, a third day. (American Standard Version, ASV)[for more details, go to  www.jw.org].
 
More on the Ceylon Gooseberry:
* Ceylon gooseberry: meaning and definitions - Ceylon gooseberry: Definition and Pronunciation
* umkokola - umkokola umkokola, small, thorny S and E African tree (Dovyalis caffra, also called kei-apple), ...
* Suggestions for spelling of encyclopedia/ceylon gooseberry - The Infoplease spelling checker combines spelling help with our dictionary and thesaurus
* kitembilla: meaning and definitions - kitembilla: Definition and Pronunciation
* Dictionary Index - Dictionary Index Césaire Cesarean cesarevitch Cesca chair Cesena cesium cesium 137 ... [source - retrieved from  http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/ceylon-gooseberry.html  on 1 04//2013]
 
Utilization:  The fruits are consumed fresh, either as a flavoring for beverages, or in preserves. Fruits can also be eaten out of hand but are usually not as the pulp is too acidic.  In Florida, Ceylon gooseberry fruits are used primarily for jelly. In Hawaii, these are being used for juice, spiced jelly, ketimbilla-papaya jam, ketimbilla-guava jelly, and ketimbilla-apple butter. In Israel, the fruit is valued mainly as a source of jelly for export  [source - retrieved from  http://www.fruitipedia.com/ceylon_gooseberry.htm  on 1/04/2013]
 
To see a picture of this tree and its fruit, go to  http://www.fruitipedia.com/ceylon_gooseberry.htm
 
How this tree and other plants absorb water from the ground.   Plants have developed an effective system to absorb, translocate, store, and utilize water.  Plants contain a vast network of conduits, which consists of xylem and phloem tissues.  These conducting tissues start in the roots and continue up through the trunks of trees, into the branches and then into every leaf.  Phloem tissue is made of living elongated cells that are connected to one another and responsible for translocating nutrients and sugars (carbohydrates), which are produced by leaves for energy and growth.  The xylem is also composed of elongated cells but once the cells are formed, they die.  The walls of the xylem cells still remain intact and serve as an excellent peipline to transport water from the roots to the leaves.
 
The main driving force of water uptake and transport into a plant is transpiration of water from leaves through specialized openings called stomata.  Heat from the sun causes the water to evaporate, setting this ‘water chain’ in motion.  The evaporation creates a negative water vapor pressure.  Water is pulled into the leaf to replace the water that has transpired from the leaf.  This pulling of water, or tension, occurs in the xylem of the leaf.  Since the xylem is a continuous water column that extends from the leaf to the roots, this negative water pressure extends into the roots and results in water uptake from the soil.  [adapted from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=follow-up-how-do-trees-ca ]
 
Clearly this clever water transport system shows a superior intelligence of the Creator (YHWH).
 
 
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Your Friend in Christ Iris89
 
Francis David said it long ago, "Neither the sword of popes...nor the image of death will halt the march of truth."Francis David, 1579, written on the wall of his prison cell." Read the book, "What Does The Bible Really Teach" and the Bible today, and go to www.jw.org!